Americans (low-context) tend to be very direct in their style of communication. Americans generally say exactly what they mean, and try to be very clear and concise. In their desire to save time and clarify points, Americans may try to bring someone with an indirect style back to the point and clarify it frequently to stay focused. Emotion rarely comes into play overtly when Americans conduct business transactions, because they feel that business should be a factual exchange. Many high-context cultures dislike this American style of “straight” conversation, and Americans frequently miss the subtleties that exist in high-context cultures.

IN

Cultures differ in how they communicate, how they use their time, and how they view themselves in terms of empowerment and decision making. These differences are likely to become apparent in business sessions with people from other countries. There has been considerable research done by anthropologists, psychologists and businesspeople on what these differences are and how we can learn to work effectively within other cultures, as will be described in this chapter. The main variables we will discuss are selected from the research of Edward Hall, Florence Kluckhohn, F.L. Strodtbeck, and Geert Hofestede.

Many business people are not prepared for some of the basic differences that they will experience when working with other cultures. Both businesswomen and businessmen will experience many culturally differing styles, mannerisms, and behaviors, and women in particular frequently find themselves wondering whether certain behaviors they are observing are culturally related or are related specifically to their gender. It is important to understand that these differences do exist, to learn to identify these differences, and to develop strategies to cope with them. There are many dimensions of cultural differences, and many which are unique to each country. This chapter will summarize some of the more common cultural differences that you may encounter in business, including variations in:

• Communication (high and low context)
• Use of time (polychronic and monochronic)
• Space (personal and physical)
• Environment (locus of control)
• View of time (past, present, future)
• Activity (being or doing)
• Power distance (hierarchy)
• Individualism and collectivism (group orientation or individual orientation)

High-Context and Low-Context Communication
Asians are very aware of slights to self image or status and are careful not to slight others. If an Asian “loses face,” which is equivalent to being socially discredited, he or she can no longer function effectively in the community. The reputation of a company or country is similarly affected. Accordingly, Asians will go to considerable lengths to avoid harming the reputations of their coworkers and countrymen. It is therefore important for Westerners to avoid criticism or ridicule, even if it may seem warranted. It usually makes the situation worse, since the criticized party may even seek revenge. While the revenge may be verbal, it can also be more concrete and damaging to you and your enterprise. Be careful to exercise diplomacy in any situation where criticism, discipline, differences of opinion, or anger is involved. (Palo Alto, California) (-- from Asia for Women on Business)

I was in Germany on business, and after dinner one evening I wandered into an art gallery and spotted a very interesting painting. I asked the woman working there how much the piece cost, and she gave me a price. I looked at a few more works and asked her for several more prices, which she gave me. After strolling around the gallery, I went back to her and told her I would take the first painting I had inquired about. She said, “Oh, that one is sold.” Surprised, I pointed to my second choice, then my third choice, and she responded that they too were sold. Confused, I finally asked “Which paintings are not sold?” and she replied, “Oh, just that one there.” I asked her why she didn’t tell me that at the beginning. She looked surprised and said, “Well, you didn’t ask.” (Newark, New Jersey)

Cultures, as described by Hall, vary in their use of contextual information. In “low-context” cultures – such as the United States – people are relatively direct and explicit in their communications and social interactions, and they tend to conceive of life in a segmented, compartmentalized manner. In contrast, in “high-context” cultures – such as Japan – people interact in more covert and implicit manners.

More specifically, people in low-context societies usually require explicit information to feel comfortable making business decisions. However, people in high-context cultures do not usually rely upon a lot of research data or in-depth background information when making business decisions, but rather glean information from their many close relationships within their extensive networks of family, friends, colleagues and clients.

Americans (low-context) tend to be very direct in their style of communication. Americans generally say exactly what they mean, and try to be very clear and concise. In their desire to save time and clarify points, Americans may try to bring someone with an indirect style back to the point and clarify it frequently to stay focused. Emotion rarely comes into play overtly when Americans conduct business transactions, because they feel that business should be a factual exchange. Many high-context cultures dislike this American style of “straight” conversation, and Americans frequently miss the subtleties that exist in high-context cultures.

INS

• Communication (high and low context)
• Use of time (polychronic and monochronic)
• Space (personal and physical)
• Environment (locus of control)
• View of time (past, present, future)
• Activity (being or doing)
• Power distance (hierarchy)
• Individualism and collectivism (group orientation or individual orientation)

High-Context and Low-Context Communication
Asians are very aware of slights to self image or status and are careful not to slight others. If an Asian “loses face,” which is equivalent to being socially discredited, he or she can no longer function effectively in the community. The reputation of a company or country is similarly affected. Accordingly, Asians will go to considerable lengths to avoid harming the reputations of their coworkers and countrymen. It is therefore important for Westerners to avoid criticism or ridicule, even if it may seem warranted. It usually makes the situation worse, since the criticized party may even seek revenge. While the revenge may be verbal, it can also be more concrete and damaging to you and your enterprise. Be careful to exercise diplomacy in any situation where criticism, discipline, differences of opinion, or anger is involved. (Palo Alto, California) (-- from Asia for Women on Business)

I was in Germany on business, and after dinner one evening I wandered into an art gallery and spotted a very interesting painting. I asked the woman working there how much the piece cost, and she gave me a price. I looked at a few more works and asked her for several more prices, which she gave me. After strolling around the gallery, I went back to her and told her I would take the first painting I had inquired about. She said, “Oh, that one is sold.” Surprised, I pointed to my second choice, then my third choice, and she responded that they too were sold. Confused, I finally asked “Which paintings are not sold?” and she replied, “Oh, just that one there.” I asked her why she didn’t tell me that at the beginning. She looked surprised and said, “Well, you didn’t ask.” (Newark, New Jersey)

Cultures, as described by Hall, vary in their use of contextual information. In “low-context” cultures – such as the United States – people are relatively direct and explicit in their communications and social interactions, and they tend to conceive of life in a segmented, compartmentalized manner. In contrast, in “high-context” cultures – such as Japan – people interact in more covert and implicit manners.

More specifically, people in low-context societies usually require explicit information to feel comfortable making business decisions. However, people in high-context cultures do not usually rely upon a lot of research data or in-depth background information when making business decisions, but rather glean information from their many close relationships within their extensive networks of family, friends, colleagues and clients.

Americans (low-context) tend to be very direct in their style of communication. Americans generally say exactly what they mean, and try to be very clear and concise. In their desire to save time and clarify points, Americans may try to bring someone with an indirect style back to the point and clarify it frequently to stay focused. Emotion rarely comes into play overtly when Americans conduct business transactions, because they feel that business should be a factual exchange. Many high-context cultures dislike this American style of “straight” conversation, and Americans frequently miss the subtleties that exist in high-context cultures.

IN

I was in Germany on business, and after dinner one evening I wandered into an art gallery and spotted a very interesting painting. I asked the woman working there how much the piece cost, and she gave me a price. I looked at a few more works and asked her for several more prices, which she gave me. After strolling around the gallery, I went back to her and told her I would take the first painting I had inquired about. She said, “Oh, that one is sold.” Surprised, I pointed to my second choice, then my third choice, and she responded that they too were sold. Confused, I finally asked “Which paintings are not sold?” and she replied, “Oh, just that one there.” I asked her why she didn’t tell me that at the beginning. She looked surprised and said, “Well, you didn’t ask.” (Newark, New Jersey)

Cultures, as described by Hall, vary in their use of contextual information. In “low-context” cultures – such as the United States – people are relatively direct and explicit in their communications and social interactions, and they tend to conceive of life in a segmented, compartmentalized manner. In contrast, in “high-context” cultures – such as Japan – people interact in more covert and implicit manners.

More specifically, people in low-context societies usually require explicit information to feel comfortable making business decisions. However, people in high-context cultures do not usually rely upon a lot of research data or in-depth background information when making business decisions, but rather glean information from their many close relationships within their extensive networks of family, friends, colleagues and clients.

Americans (low-context) tend to be very direct in their style of communication. Americans generally say exactly what they mean, and try to be very clear and concise. In their desire to save time and clarify points, Americans may try to bring someone with an indirect style back to the point and clarify it frequently to stay focused. Emotion rarely comes into play overtly when Americans conduct business transactions, because they feel that business should be a factual exchange. Many high-context cultures dislike this American style of “straight” conversation, and Americans frequently miss the subtleties that exist in high-context cultures.

IN

Americans (low-context) tend to be very direct in their style of communication. Americans generally say exactly what they mean, and try to be very clear and concise. In their desire to save time and clarify points, Americans may try to bring someone with an indirect style back to the point and clarify it frequently to stay focused. Emotion rarely comes into play overtly when Americans conduct business transactions, because they feel that business should be a factual exchange. Many high-context cultures dislike this American style of “straight” conversation, and Americans frequently miss the subtleties that exist in high-context cultures.

INSERT FIGURE 4 COMMUNICATION
Tips for conducting business in high-context cultures:
• The U.S. and much of Europe are viewed as low-context cultures. These cultures place a higher value on verbal messages than do the high-context cultures in Asia and parts of Latin America, who view words as tools not to persuade, but rather harmonize. Be sensitive to subtle cues and do not assume that information will be directly verbalized.
• In a high-context culture, preserving harmony is very important. When conducting business, a Japanese or Latin American businessman may not say “no” or express disagreement overtly. Therefore you need to understand how the culture you are working with expresses disagreement so you can identify it. In many cases, disagreement will be implied when your foreign associate asks another question or uses an expression such as, “This is a difficult question to answer.”
• Low-context cultures may view the communication style of high-context cultures as a waste of time. Conversely, high-context cultures may find the low-context style of communication insensitive and rude. Be aware of how you come across and adjust your style if necessary.

Polychronic Time versus Monochronic Time
I had to enter late for my first business meeting in Milan, Italy, but my colleagues were aware of this and told me to drop in whenever I arrived. As I walked closer to the meeting room, I heard raised voices all talking over each other. I peeked in to see if I had the right meeting, and I saw what “polychronic” really means. Some of the Italian men were pacing the floor with cigarettes hanging out of their mouths; others were scribbling on the whiteboards and making wild gestures; they were talking over each other in multiple conversations in English and Italian at the same time; all the while espresso was percolating and being passed around. Finally someone noticed me, handed me a marker, pointed at the whiteboard, and said “Well, what are you waiting for? What do you think?!” (Dallas, Texas) (– from Europe for Women in Business)

The way people view time also varies in different cultures, as observed and described by researcher Hall. Monochronic time cultures, such as those of the United States and most Northern European countries, emphasize schedules, a precise reckoning of time, and promptness. Time is viewed as a discrete commodity. People in these cultures do one thing after another, finishing each activity before starting the next.

On the other hand, in polychronic cultures, such as those in Latin America and the Middle East, people tend to do more than one thing concurrently (or intermittently during a time period) and to emphasize the number of completed transactions and the number of people involved, rather than the adherence to a time schedule. Being on time is less important in polychronic cultures than in monochronic cultures.

Americans (monochronic) tend to think of time as something fixed in nature, which cannot be escaped. We tend to view activities and time in discreet segments or compartments, which are to be dealt with one at a time. It is not logical to have two activities going on at the same time. Americans are often frustrated when working with people from polychronic cultures who view time as something fluid, and who easily alter schedules to shifting priorities. In these situations meetings will start late, outside issues may interrupt business transactions, multiple activities may be scheduled at the same time, and adherence to deadlines may depend on the strength of the relationship.

INSERT FIGURE 5 Monochronic/Polychronic Views of Time

• Plan to spend a few extra days in the country you’re visiting, being aware that meetings likely won’t run on the schedule you’re used to. This way you won’t feel frustrated or pressured if the meetings extend overtime.

• Be on time for meetings even if you don’t expect them to start on time. This shows respect for your business associates.

• Expect me