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Member You - Ergativity is Still Alive in Kaingang Language from South Brazil – Part 1
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But since typological matters are never that simple, in addition to the just described classic marking, some ergative languages might display the “active-stative” (or simply “active”) type of case marking. These active languages mark some Si (also termed as non-actives or ‘unaccusatives’) with O, whereas another class of Si (also termed as actives/agentives or ‘unergatives’) has the same ergative marking as St. Certainly, the term “unergative” is quite funny as it is the unergative subject which receives the ergative marking.
Besides that, ergative languages are never pure. Put differently, no language seems to be wholly ergative. This is because many languages show mixed nominative-accusative and absolutive-ergative features. This phenomenon is called split ergativity, which it is to say that an agent (St) is marked for ergative case or left unmarked depending on its position on the animacy hierarchy, or on the tense/aspect/mood of the clause, or on the grammatical status of the
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Scholars agree that many Ge languages of Central Brazil have shown some degree of ergativity. In this respect, data from a varied sample of the Ge languages have confirmed the prevalence of complex patterns of split ergativity in this linguistic family. In these series of articles, I will try to explain some interesting facts of the Kaing?ng nominal marking.
To begin with, let us consider first that linguistic features, not vocabulary alone, can be transferred from one language to another. It is necessary to note, then, that Kaing?ng speakers are fairly bilingual and give privileged status to Brazilian Portuguese. In fact, some adults give it up in favour of exclusively using Portuguese. It seems that surrounded by Portuguese, the Kaing?ng language is increasingly weakening, losing its essence. Alongside this, since most of the community members are lacking a sense of social or religious identity, we must recognize that the Kaing?ng culture is a moribund one.
Postpositional languages
In the postpositional languages, all words which are nouns are normally followed by a particle (that is, postposition or adposition), which tells the function of the noun it marks. Still, postpositions do not function as independent word units; they lack any meaning of their own. Specifically, in the Kaing?ng sentence the relationship of a noun is generally shown by postpositions.
Postpositions are extremely important elements. In particular, postpositions may allow the hearer to identify the grammatical role of the nominal elements on the sentence (i.e. to solve the so-called “who is who game”). That is to say, to distinguish between the three basic grammatical categories, to know: intransitive subject (Si), transitive subject (St), and direct object (O). In other words, postpositions have numerous functions and most of those functions serve to disambiguate contexts.
The Japanese grammar illustrates the use of postpositions as case markers. Indeed, postpositions are actually fairly common in the Japanese language. For example, the Japanese postposition “wa” is used for indicating the topic of a sentence, whereas “ga” for indicating the subject. Surely, the use of particles as case markers is quite foreign to Portuguese and English speakers. By contrast, the Portuguese and English languages use only prepositions to modify nouns and verbs, which are the same linguistic elements as postpositions except that they are placed before a noun (hence pre-position). Finally, it is worth also mentioning that there are a lot of differences between languages with respect to prepositions and postpositions.
Having gone this far, let us assume now that Kaing?ng is a postpositional language. Accordingly, postpositions are key elements on Kaing?ng case marking system. For instance, Kaing?ng displays at least eight subject markers (see Wiesemann, 1972:104). Besides that, like many Ge languages, Kaing?ng is a basic “OV” word order type of language, that is, the object always precedes the verb (ergative languages show a predominance of the OV ordering). In the next article, we will see further details.
Ergative systems
Among the languages of the world that have case marking systems for distinguish between subjects and objects, the commonest systems are the accusative and the ergative. Ge languages, as mentioned earlier, display ergative features. Basically, ergative case occurs on nominal case marking on the nouns and/or on the verbal agreement system. Naturally, every language has a lot of possibilities (e.g. affixes, postpositions, word order, agreement, etc.) in order of expressing the nominal case marking.
Simplifying matters somewhat, we can say that the classic ergative pattern treats the subjects of intransitive verbs in the same way as the objects of transitive verbs, that is both are zero-marked by absolutive case (no overt marking at all), and differently from a transitive subject, which receives an ergative special marker. This pattern is also known as “ergative alignment” of the nominal elements. In short, the intransitive subject has “something in common” (case/agreement) with the object of the transitive verb.
But since typological matters are never that simple, in addition to the just described classic marking, some ergative languages might display the “active-stative” (or simply “active”) type of case marking. These active languages mark some Si (also termed as non-actives or ‘unaccusatives’) with O, whereas another class of Si (also termed as actives/agentives or ‘unergatives’) has the same ergative marking as St. Certainly, the term “unergative” is quite funny as it is the unergative subject which receives the ergative marking.
Besides that, ergative languages are never pure. Put differently, no language seems to be wholly ergative. This is because many languages show mixed nominative-accusative and absolutive-ergative features. This phenomenon is called split ergativity, which it is to say that an agent (St) is marked for ergative case or left unmarked depending on its position on the animacy hierarchy, or on the tense/aspect/mood of the clause, or on the grammatical status of the c
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Postpositional languages
In the postpositional languages, all words which are nouns are normally followed by a particle (that is, postposition or adposition), which tells the function of the noun it marks. Still, postpositions do not function as independent word units; they lack any meaning of their own. Specifically, in the Kaing?ng sentence the relationship of a noun is generally shown by postpositions.
Postpositions are extremely important elements. In particular, postpositions may allow the hearer to identify the grammatical role of the nominal elements on the sentence (i.e. to solve the so-called “who is who game”). That is to say, to distinguish between the three basic grammatical categories, to know: intransitive subject (Si), transitive subject (St), and direct object (O). In other words, postpositions have numerous functions and most of those functions serve to disambiguate contexts.
The Japanese grammar illustrates the use of postpositions as case markers. Indeed, postpositions are actually fairly common in the Japanese language. For example, the Japanese postposition “wa” is used for indicating the topic of a sentence, whereas “ga” for indicating the subject. Surely, the use of particles as case markers is quite foreign to Portuguese and English speakers. By contrast, the Portuguese and English languages use only prepositions to modify nouns and verbs, which are the same linguistic elements as postpositions except that they are placed before a noun (hence pre-position). Finally, it is worth also mentioning that there are a lot of differences between languages with respect to prepositions and postpositions.
Having gone this far, let us assume now that Kaing?ng is a postpositional language. Accordingly, postpositions are key elements on Kaing?ng case marking system. For instance, Kaing?ng displays at least eight subject markers (see Wiesemann, 1972:104). Besides that, like many Ge languages, Kaing?ng is a basic “OV” word order type of language, that is, the object always precedes the verb (ergative languages show a predominance of the OV ordering). In the next article, we will see further details.
Ergative systems
Among the languages of the world that have case marking systems for distinguish between subjects and objects, the commonest systems are the accusative and the ergative. Ge languages, as mentioned earlier, display ergative features. Basically, ergative case occurs on nominal case marking on the nouns and/or on the verbal agreement system. Naturally, every language has a lot of possibilities (e.g. affixes, postpositions, word order, agreement, etc.) in order of expressing the nominal case marking.
Simplifying matters somewhat, we can say that the classic ergative pattern treats the subjects of intransitive verbs in the same way as the objects of transitive verbs, that is both are zero-marked by absolutive case (no overt marking at all), and differently from a transitive subject, which receives an ergative special marker. This pattern is also known as “ergative alignment” of the nominal elements. In short, the intransitive subject has “something in common” (case/agreement) with the object of the transitive verb.
But since typological matters are never that simple, in addition to the just described classic marking, some ergative languages might display the “active-stative” (or simply “active”) type of case marking. These active languages mark some Si (also termed as non-actives or ‘unaccusatives’) with O, whereas another class of Si (also termed as actives/agentives or ‘unergatives’) has the same ergative marking as St. Certainly, the term “unergative” is quite funny as it is the unergative subject which receives the ergative marking.
Besides that, ergative languages are never pure. Put differently, no language seems to be wholly ergative. This is because many languages show mixed nominative-accusative and absolutive-ergative features. This phenomenon is called split ergativity, which it is to say that an agent (St) is marked for ergative case or left unmarked depending on its position on the animacy hierarchy, or on the tense/aspect/mood of the clause, or on the grammatical status of the
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Having gone this far, let us assume now that Kaing?ng is a postpositional language. Accordingly, postpositions are key elements on Kaing?ng case marking system. For instance, Kaing?ng displays at least eight subject markers (see Wiesemann, 1972:104). Besides that, like many Ge languages, Kaing?ng is a basic “OV” word order type of language, that is, the object always precedes the verb (ergative languages show a predominance of the OV ordering). In the next article, we will see further details.
Ergative systems
Among the languages of the world that have case marking systems for distinguish between subjects and objects, the commonest systems are the accusative and the ergative. Ge languages, as mentioned earlier, display ergative features. Basically, ergative case occurs on nominal case marking on the nouns and/or on the verbal agreement system. Naturally, every language has a lot of possibilities (e.g. affixes, postpositions, word order, agreement, etc.) in order of expressing the nominal case marking.
Simplifying matters somewhat, we can say that the classic ergative pattern treats the subjects of intransitive verbs in the same way as the objects of transitive verbs, that is both are zero-marked by absolutive case (no overt marking at all), and differently from a transitive subject, which receives an ergative special marker. This pattern is also known as “ergative alignment” of the nominal elements. In short, the intransitive subject has “something in common” (case/agreement) with the object of the transitive verb.
But since typological matters are never that simple, in addition to the just described classic marking, some ergative languages might display the “active-stative” (or simply “active”) type of case marking. These active languages mark some Si (also termed as non-actives or ‘unaccusatives’) with O, whereas another class of Si (also termed as actives/agentives or ‘unergatives’) has the same ergative marking as St. Certainly, the term “unergative” is quite funny as it is the unergative subject which receives the ergative marking.
Besides that, ergative languages are never pure. Put differently, no language seems to be wholly ergative. This is because many languages show mixed nominative-accusative and absolutive-ergative features. This phenomenon is called split ergativity, which it is to say that an agent (St) is marked for ergative case or left unmarked depending on its position on the animacy hierarchy, or on the tense/aspect/mood of the clause, or on the grammatical status of the
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Ergative systems
Among the languages of the world that have case marking systems for distinguish between subjects and objects, the commonest systems are the accusative and the ergative. Ge languages, as mentioned earlier, display ergative features. Basically, ergative case occurs on nominal case marking on the nouns and/or on the verbal agreement system. Naturally, every language has a lot of possibilities (e.g. affixes, postpositions, word order, agreement, etc.) in order of expressing the nominal case marking.
Simplifying matters somewhat, we can say that the classic ergative pattern treats the subjects of intransitive verbs in the same way as the objects of transitive verbs, that is both are zero-marked by absolutive case (no overt marking at all), and differently from a transitive subject, which receives an ergative special marker. This pattern is also known as “ergative alignment” of the nominal elements. In short, the intransitive subject has “something in common” (case/agreement) with the object of the transitive verb.
But since typological matters are never that simple, in addition to the just described classic marking, some ergative languages might display the “active-stative” (or simply “active”) type of case marking. These active languages mark some Si (also termed as non-actives or ‘unaccusatives’) with O, whereas another class of Si (also termed as actives/agentives or ‘unergatives’) has the same ergative marking as St. Certainly, the term “unergative” is quite funny as it is the unergative subject which receives the ergative marking.
Besides that, ergative languages are never pure. Put differently, no language seems to be wholly ergative. This is because many languages show mixed nominative-accusative and absolutive-ergative features. This phenomenon is called split ergativity, which it is to say that an agent (St) is marked for ergative case or left unmarked depending on its position on the animacy hierarchy, or on the tense/aspect/mood of the clause, or on the grammatical status of the
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But since typological matters are never that simple, in addition to the just described classic marking, some ergative languages might display the “active-stative” (or simply “active”) type of case marking. These active languages mark some Si (also termed as non-actives or ‘unaccusatives’) with O, whereas another class of Si (also termed as actives/agentives or ‘unergatives’) has the same ergative marking as St. Certainly, the term “unergative” is quite funny as it is the unergative subject which receives the ergative marking.
Besides that, ergative languages are never pure. Put differently, no language seems to be wholly ergative. This is because many languages show mixed nominative-accusative and absolutive-ergative features. This phenomenon is called split ergativity, which it is to say that an agent (St) is marked for ergative case or left unmarked depending on its position on the animacy hierarchy, or on the tense/aspect/mood of the clause, or on the grammatical status of the clause, whether it is main or subordinate, etc. Also, it is worth noting that ergative languages differ from on another in many important ways. As the data show, Kaing?ng displays a pattern of split ergativity (in which some but not all transitive clauses are ergative constructions) on nominal case marking and a “pure” ergative pattern on verbal agreement.
In truth, the best way to understand case systems is to work through some examples. The next article looks at Kaing?ng nominal marking and provides information on its postpositions. Then, with some data in hand, it should be easier to see what is involved.
References
Henry, Jules. 1948. The Kaingang language. IJAL xiv, no. 3: 194-204.
-----. 1935. A Kaingang text. IJAL viii, no. 3-4: 172-218.
Mansur Gu?rios, R. F. O Xocr?n ? idioma Caingangue (Shokl?ng is a Kaing?ng language). Arquivos do Museu Paranaense IV: 321-331.
Rodrigues, Aryon Dall’Igna. 1994. L?nguas Brasileiras (Brazilian Languages). S?o Paulo: Loyola.
Wiesemann, Ursula. 1972. Die phonologische und grammatische Struktur der Kaing?ng-Sprache (The Phonological and Grammatical Structure of the Kaing?ng Language). The Hague: Mouton.
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