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Member You - Coalition of Community Lay Knowledge Systems with Scientific Knowledge Systems
Cost accounting in manufacturing answers the simple question: “Am I making money on this job, and if not then why not?”. Cost accounting is a bridge between financial and management accounting and is a technique used to address the demands of both. It is a systematic application that takes all events in the supply chain and translates them into financial values for analyses by various people both inside and outside the company operations. The most important results of the analyses are findings by which management can reduce manufacturing costs while improving profitability, especially in the multi-sequence operations of manufacturing. While there are several ways to approach cost accounting (e.g., activity-based, throughput, etc.), the generally accepted accounting principles most in line with manufacturing operations are standard cost accounting and weighted average cost accounting. In both standard cost and weighted average cost accounting, managers can best assess production profit results as they are related to a formula for the “standard cost” of manufacturing a product.In general terms, the computation of manufacturing cost involves many methods and techniques to define the components of cost, as
Thirdly, knowledge systems should as a purpose add value to the lives of communities by continuously facilitating best practice operations. According to Boven and Morohashi (2002) best practices using indigenous knowledge should at least possess the following characteristics:
· The practice should be innovative in nature in the sense that it has developed new and creative solutions to common problems experienced by a community; · The practice has a positive impact on the living conditions, quality of life or environment of the individuals, groups or communities concerned; · The practice should have a sustainable effect; and · The practice should have the potential to be a source of inspiration to others.
The value added role of indigenous knowledge s
Engage your customers no matter where they are on the web.Internet marketers are finding that having a great web page is only great for as long as their customers remain focused on their site. Web developers will tell you that they can make your site more compelling, but, no matter how engaging a web page is, it will only be on the screen for a small fraction of the 4 to 6 hours the average user is surfing the internet on a given day. Optimizing your site for search engine hits will bring your customers to the mountain, but what if you could put the mountain in their hands to take along with them?Companies are putting a lot of energy and expense into their website. Experts say that an effective website must be searchable, should keep the viewer on the page as long as possible, and provide content and interactivity to encourage repeat visits. The most successful websites maintain fresh content, provide ways of interacting with visitors, allow visitors to interact with each other, and allow for online transactions. Still, after all of the effort to create a look and feel to hold visitors, statistics show that users visit a website for an average of sixty seconds before moving on.When customers are not on your w
Knowledge may be considered as an aggregate of knowledge systems. This aggregation includes indigenous or community lay (local or traditional) knowledge systems as well as scientific (formal ways of knowing) knowledge systems. The sum total represents the knowledge assets of a country, which are deemed essential to drive economic growth, competitive advantages, human capital, and quality of life (Malhotra, 2003). Community knowledge systems often provide different types of knowledge classifications based upon the observations, beliefs and experiences of people from a specific environmental location, a need exists to incorporate it into development plans and actions. Incorporating community knowledge sytems into developmental approaches will according to Boven and Morohashi (2002) at least enables local communities to actively participate in the decision-making process of what really works in the daily practices of people living in a specific environment. Active participation by communities contributing localized knowledge gives recognition to the Participatory Action Research approach of synergistic maximization of impact, increased citizen participation and community ownership.
Recently, more recognition is given to the fact that indigenous or community lay knowledge has intrinsic merit, and hold development potential especially for rural area development (Crithley, 2000). However, the effective application and utilization of community lay knowledge in technology development and transfer remains largely unclear despite recognition that it represents a rich body of knowledge for technological innovations.
Purpose
The purpose of this article is to provide baseline information on how community lay knowledge systems can be applied in technology development and transfer through the process of knowledge creation cooperation, education and innovation in coalition with scientific knowledge systems. Community lay knowledge for the purpose of this article is distinct from scientific knowledge is that community lay knowledge is considered to be more experiential in nature, and includes judgement and common sense which has been acquired with experience. Community lay knowledge is often referred to as practical logic (Craig, 2000).
Features of knowledge systems
Knowledge systems in general require firstly process agents that can drive change and development. In this regard Malhotra (2003) identified three process agents namely:
· National institutions; · Frameworks; and · Infrastructure.
The above three agents facilitate the effective use, sharing, creation, and renewal of knowledge required for socio-economic growth. Through knowledge systems, knowledge assets are created that eventually manifested in technologies, competencies and capabilities causing the creation of new services and products. Normally, community lay knowledge systems are severely resource constrained regarding the possession of process agents.
Secondly, knowledge systems may differ in methodology and classification. Whereas scientific knowledge systems normally represents a top-down transfer of expert knowledge from research institutions to beneficiaries (Oudwater and Martin, 2003), the filtering of community lay knowledge into the scientific body of knowledge represents a bottom-up knowledge transfer approach. This according to Ansari et al (2002) provides a conducive knowledge base in which external knowledge of scientists combines with community assets leading to balancing of internal versus external diffusion of skills through a community. Community lay knowledge classification of knowledge may also differ from the classification systems used by scientists. A classical example is the different approaches used in soil classification used by farmers versus scientists. For most farmers the principle criterion by which soil is recognized and described is surface texture e.g. sand, clay or loam content. Soil surveyors on the other hand would tend to classify the soil in terms of subsurface properties (Oudwater and Martin, 2003).
Thirdly, knowledge systems should as a purpose add value to the lives of communities by continuously facilitating best practice operations. According to Boven and Morohashi (2002) best practices using indigenous knowledge should at least possess the following characteristics:
· The practice should be innovative in nature in the sense that it has developed new and creative solutions to common problems experienced by a community; · The practice has a positive impact on the living conditions, quality of life or environment of the individuals, groups or communities concerned; · The practice should have a sustainable effect; and · The practice should have the potential to be a source of inspiration to others.
The value added role of indigenous knowledge s
In the United States price collusion and predatory pricing are illegal. Yet if you look out to industry associations you often see groups of businesses beginning together and discussing pricing, sales strategies and method of operations. One could say this is price-fixing. Worse off agencies like the Federal Trade Commission often side with businesses in industry associations to work with them in self policing policies. One would suppose that this helps the Federal Trade Commission watch over an industry without spending much time or costs in enforcement.Unfortunately, for the consumer these industry associations often attack their own; that is to say the industry association and its members will go after the newcomer entrepreneur who comes into the industry gangbusters with low prices. Such a competitive upstart company will make waves in the industry and thus be a target of the association. The association working along with the government agency such as the Federal Trade Commission simply has to have its lawyers who generally are working pro bono as they are already on staff at one of the industry associations members companies turn the Company in on trumped up charges of some rule or regulation.About the only t
Recently, more recognition is given to the fact that indigenous or community lay knowledge has intrinsic merit, and hold development potential especially for rural area development (Crithley, 2000). However, the effective application and utilization of community lay knowledge in technology development and transfer remains largely unclear despite recognition that it represents a rich body of knowledge for technological innovations.
Purpose
The purpose of this article is to provide baseline information on how community lay knowledge systems can be applied in technology development and transfer through the process of knowledge creation cooperation, education and innovation in coalition with scientific knowledge systems. Community lay knowledge for the purpose of this article is distinct from scientific knowledge is that community lay knowledge is considered to be more experiential in nature, and includes judgement and common sense which has been acquired with experience. Community lay knowledge is often referred to as practical logic (Craig, 2000).
Features of knowledge systems
Knowledge systems in general require firstly process agents that can drive change and development. In this regard Malhotra (2003) identified three process agents namely:
· National institutions; · Frameworks; and · Infrastructure.
The above three agents facilitate the effective use, sharing, creation, and renewal of knowledge required for socio-economic growth. Through knowledge systems, knowledge assets are created that eventually manifested in technologies, competencies and capabilities causing the creation of new services and products. Normally, community lay knowledge systems are severely resource constrained regarding the possession of process agents.
Secondly, knowledge systems may differ in methodology and classification. Whereas scientific knowledge systems normally represents a top-down transfer of expert knowledge from research institutions to beneficiaries (Oudwater and Martin, 2003), the filtering of community lay knowledge into the scientific body of knowledge represents a bottom-up knowledge transfer approach. This according to Ansari et al (2002) provides a conducive knowledge base in which external knowledge of scientists combines with community assets leading to balancing of internal versus external diffusion of skills through a community. Community lay knowledge classification of knowledge may also differ from the classification systems used by scientists. A classical example is the different approaches used in soil classification used by farmers versus scientists. For most farmers the principle criterion by which soil is recognized and described is surface texture e.g. sand, clay or loam content. Soil surveyors on the other hand would tend to classify the soil in terms of subsurface properties (Oudwater and Martin, 2003).
Thirdly, knowledge systems should as a purpose add value to the lives of communities by continuously facilitating best practice operations. According to Boven and Morohashi (2002) best practices using indigenous knowledge should at least possess the following characteristics:
· The practice should be innovative in nature in the sense that it has developed new and creative solutions to common problems experienced by a community; · The practice has a positive impact on the living conditions, quality of life or environment of the individuals, groups or communities concerned; · The practice should have a sustainable effect; and · The practice should have the potential to be a source of inspiration to others.
The value added role of indigenous knowledge s
It's a fact. Clients will always pay you more than you realize. How do I know? Because price is not the be-all-and-end-all of why your clients hire you. It's usually third, even fourth on their list of important reasons why they'll choose your service over someone else's.Let me get right to the point here. If you focus first on what matters most to your clients, the topic of price stays just that—a topic, not an issue.Here are 3 things your clients care about MORE than price (hint: focus on over-delivering on each of these and price will rarely, if ever, keep a client from hiring you):*QualityQuality seems to come up often when you're talking about a product but rarely when it's a service. But why not? Quality counts no matter what your business!What are the quality indicators your clients want with a service like yours? For example, in my business, quality indicators are the high value of the information I provide. Do my courses and products actually deliver results? Is my information somehow different, or presented differently than information on the same topic offered elsewhere?Obviously, the answer has to be 'yes!' to satisfy my clients' idea of quality.What indicat
Features of knowledge systems
Knowledge systems in general require firstly process agents that can drive change and development. In this regard Malhotra (2003) identified three process agents namely:
· National institutions; · Frameworks; and · Infrastructure.
The above three agents facilitate the effective use, sharing, creation, and renewal of knowledge required for socio-economic growth. Through knowledge systems, knowledge assets are created that eventually manifested in technologies, competencies and capabilities causing the creation of new services and products. Normally, community lay knowledge systems are severely resource constrained regarding the possession of process agents.
Secondly, knowledge systems may differ in methodology and classification. Whereas scientific knowledge systems normally represents a top-down transfer of expert knowledge from research institutions to beneficiaries (Oudwater and Martin, 2003), the filtering of community lay knowledge into the scientific body of knowledge represents a bottom-up knowledge transfer approach. This according to Ansari et al (2002) provides a conducive knowledge base in which external knowledge of scientists combines with community assets leading to balancing of internal versus external diffusion of skills through a community. Community lay knowledge classification of knowledge may also differ from the classification systems used by scientists. A classical example is the different approaches used in soil classification used by farmers versus scientists. For most farmers the principle criterion by which soil is recognized and described is surface texture e.g. sand, clay or loam content. Soil surveyors on the other hand would tend to classify the soil in terms of subsurface properties (Oudwater and Martin, 2003).
Thirdly, knowledge systems should as a purpose add value to the lives of communities by continuously facilitating best practice operations. According to Boven and Morohashi (2002) best practices using indigenous knowledge should at least possess the following characteristics:
· The practice should be innovative in nature in the sense that it has developed new and creative solutions to common problems experienced by a community; · The practice has a positive impact on the living conditions, quality of life or environment of the individuals, groups or communities concerned; · The practice should have a sustainable effect; and · The practice should have the potential to be a source of inspiration to others.
The value added role of indigenous knowledge s
Don’t lose your sleep worrying about how to develop a business plan. Go by the time-tested formula perfected by experts. Follow these simple guidelines and very soon you’ll have a plan that best expresses your intended business model. You may even gain enough confidence to guide others regarding how to develop a business plan.Annual plans don’t qualify as business plans. Make your business plan an all-comprehensive document, detailing every aspect of the business activity over a long period of time. Formulate a complete plan for the business you choose to set up.New entrepreneurs should use business plan templates to guide them along. It will help them properly structure their initial efforts. Business templates are extensively available online and simplify the planning process. Instead of grappling with all the aspects of planning, divide the process into distinct sections. Complete each section before contemplating or collecting data for the rest of the plan.The Internet proves to be a big help with countless articles on how to develop a business plan. You can also research business plans available online, and incorporate features that best suit your line of business.Your business plan is your selling
Secondly, knowledge systems may differ in methodology and classification. Whereas scientific knowledge systems normally represents a top-down transfer of expert knowledge from research institutions to beneficiaries (Oudwater and Martin, 2003), the filtering of community lay knowledge into the scientific body of knowledge represents a bottom-up knowledge transfer approach. This according to Ansari et al (2002) provides a conducive knowledge base in which external knowledge of scientists combines with community assets leading to balancing of internal versus external diffusion of skills through a community. Community lay knowledge classification of knowledge may also differ from the classification systems used by scientists. A classical example is the different approaches used in soil classification used by farmers versus scientists. For most farmers the principle criterion by which soil is recognized and described is surface texture e.g. sand, clay or loam content. Soil surveyors on the other hand would tend to classify the soil in terms of subsurface properties (Oudwater and Martin, 2003).
Thirdly, knowledge systems should as a purpose add value to the lives of communities by continuously facilitating best practice operations. According to Boven and Morohashi (2002) best practices using indigenous knowledge should at least possess the following characteristics:
· The practice should be innovative in nature in the sense that it has developed new and creative solutions to common problems experienced by a community; · The practice has a positive impact on the living conditions, quality of life or environment of the individuals, groups or communities concerned; · The practice should have a sustainable effect; and · The practice should have the potential to be a source of inspiration to others.
The value added role of indigenous knowledge s
The senior manager of a large organization called me seeking help.‘We are stiff and bureaucratic,’ he said, ‘but we want to be more open. We are formal until it hurts but we’d like more innovation. Can you help us, Mr. Kaufman? Can you share a new perspective and bring some fresh ideas?’I accepted the assignment and found that what he said was true: they had an old culture of top-down control, suffocating authority, miles of red tape and rigid ways of working.With enthusiasm, I prepared a speech that opened many eyes. Laughter rolled through the audience, self-reflection mixed with humor. I saw skepticism and resignation, but also interest, possibility and a desire for new action.The next day my telephone rang. Someone in the audience felt I had gone too far, was too provocative, had challenged too many sacrosanct assumptions.I was concerned, of course, but also began to wonder. Had I stayed within the safety zone of caution and consensus, would my remarks have hit the spot at all; would my speech have made a difference?My friend Chauncey Bell opened my eyes on this topic with a point of view I found completely unexpected. He said, ‘There are two times when consensus is required. First, when
Thirdly, knowledge systems should as a purpose add value to the lives of communities by continuously facilitating best practice operations. According to Boven and Morohashi (2002) best practices using indigenous knowledge should at least possess the following characteristics:
· The practice should be innovative in nature in the sense that it has developed new and creative solutions to common problems experienced by a community; · The practice has a positive impact on the living conditions, quality of life or environment of the individuals, groups or communities concerned; · The practice should have a sustainable effect; and · The practice should have the potential to be a source of inspiration to others.
The value added role of indigenous knowledge systems can be best explained in terms of its virtues (Craig, 2000):
· This knowledge source on the common elements of mundane speech and thought, which implies broad taxonomies, simple constructions and powerful organizing metaphors and narratives. Meanings given are therefore easily generalised to many and a variety day-to-day applications; · Concepts used in community lay knowledge systems are normally broader defined than those in scientific knowledge systems leading to a situation that cause and effects relationships between variables are based upon practical logic and semantic. Application of community lay knowledge should therefore be understood within the framework, specificities and language of specific cultures; and · In application a general tendency towards mnemonic exists whereby complex process are repackaged in the memory using simple learning devices and developing simple recipes to remember it and to pass it on to next generations. The application of concepts and the resources used to fix a problem are therefore normally within the practical grasp of the user.
A need for coalition between knowledge systems exist
Community lay knowledge can complement scientific knowledge systems. However, the effective application of community lay knowledge in technology development requires in the opinion of this author a proper coalition between scientific knowledge systems and community lay knowledge systems in any development approach. In the field of innovation communities can build on and expand on their indigenous knowledge using scientific knowledge systems without forsaking local rituals, overstepping social taboos whilst giving recognition to the fact that community lay knowledge largely drives innovation in marginal and restrictive environments (Hart, 2005). Innovations that are too costly, or labour intensive are unlikely to be adopted by the community (Critchley, 2000).
But, according to Oudwater and Martin (2003) local knowledge systems should not be seen as a counterpart to scientific knowledge as it includes cultural, as well as technical knowledge and is interlinked with social and political knowledge and skills. As such these knowledge systems do indeed interact with the outside world, change over time and are thus not static systems. Local knowledge systems is however particular in terms of domain and types of knowledge. Probably, the biggest advantage is that community knowledge systems are known and installed in the daily activities of people living in a specific region (Krasilnikov and Tabor, 2003). Community knowledge can therefore be considered a highly valued knowledge resource from which scientists can extract “best elements” to combine with conventional science.
To extract best elements from and apply community lay knowledge one needs to incorporate at least the following (Malhotra, 2003):
· Determine who the rightful owners are of the conducted practices in order to ensure that their intellectual property rights are respected and secured; · Understand the context in which the indigenous knowledge is applied. · Realise the impact that these indigenous knowledge technologies have on the local community. · Comprehend the indigenous knowledge strength that exists in a community to ensure the sustainability of technologies in the community and the effective transfer of that knowledge to future generations.
Conclusion
Independent from one another neither community lay knowledge, nor scientific knowledge represents a comprehensive or complete body of knowledge as each reflect different epistemologies created within different environments and using different points of departure. However, utilized in coalition they can provide further impetus to understanding and finding innovative solutions for practical problems experienced.
Bibliography
Ansari, W.E., Philips, C.J.
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